Land and water form the twin foundations of global food production, and both are under mounting pressure. The State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture 2025, a flagship assessment produced by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), warns that accelerating soil degradation, loss of fertile land, and intensifying competition over water are converging to threaten the world’s ability to feed a growing population. The report identifies water scarcity and declining water quality as particularly urgent constraints that increasingly shape the productivity, resilience and sustainability of agrifood systems.
Agriculture accounts for 72 per cent of global freshwater withdrawals, making it the sector most directly responsible for — and affected by — water scarcity. Today, 1.2 billion people live in agricultural areas facing severe water constraints. In regions such as South Asia, the Middle East and parts of Africa, these constraints already limit production potential and intensify competition between sectors, undermining rural livelihoods and deepening vulnerabilities.
The FAO identifies water scarcity and declining water quality as particularly urgent constraints that increasingly shape the productivity, resilience and sustainability of agrifood systems
Irrigated agriculture illustrates both the critical role of water and the risks of overdependence. Although irrigated land represents just 22.5 per cent of cropland, it produces 48 per cent of global crop value. This disproportionate contribution highlights the productivity benefits of irrigation, but it also reveals the fragility of food systems that rely heavily on water resources that are increasingly stressed. More than 60 per cent of irrigated land lies in areas of high or very high water stress, underscoring the urgency of transitioning to more sustainable water management practices.
Groundwater depletion further deepens this crisis. Across arid and semi-arid regions, aquifers are being pumped faster than they can recharge. The report notes falling groundwater levels, saltwater intrusion in coastal areas and rising pumping costs — all of which threaten future agricultural use and drinking water safety. At the same time, widespread water pollution — driven largely by agricultural runoff — reduces the availability of clean water for ecosystems and human use, making the challenge multidimensional.
More than 60 per cent of irrigated land lies in areas of high or very high water stress
Raising water productivity — the benefits gained per unit of water — is therefore central to the transformation of food systems. At the system level, the report calls for irrigation modernization, defined as a comprehensive technical, managerial and institutional upgrading of irrigation schemes. This includes improved infrastructure, digital monitoring, better water delivery, strengthened governance and integration of environmental considerations.
At the farm level, efficiency gains are supported by technologies such as drip and sprinkler irrigation, as well as precision irrigation systems that tailor water application to crop needs. While these can form part of modernization programmes, they can also be adopted independently, making them related but distinct pathways toward improved water use.
The report also highlights the growing importance of water reuse and recycling. Recommendations include water recycling and nutrient recovery as strategies to reduce freshwater withdrawals, lower pollution loads and support more circular water use in agricultural and aquaculture systems.
Climate change magnifies all these pressures. Altered rainfall patterns, rising temperatures and more frequent droughts will increase crop water requirements and reduce the reliability of water supply. Evapotranspiration from irrigated land could rise by 20 to 30 per cent by 2050, requiring major advances in efficiency simply to maintain current levels of production.
To address these interconnected challenges, the report calls for a transformative shift toward integrated land and water governance, recognizing that food production depends on their combined resilience. Land degradation, soil erosion, declining soil fertility and the loss of organic matter reduce the capacity of soils to hold water, while water scarcity and poor-quality irrigation can in turn accelerate land degradation. Strengthening the link between land management and water management is therefore essential. Approaches such as integrated water resources management (IWRM), the Water–Energy–Food–Ecosystems (WEFE) nexus and inclusive land-use planning aim to align decisions across sectors, ensuring that water allocation, soil conservation, landscape restoration and agricultural development reinforce rather than undermine each other. The report emphasizes that only by managing land and water as a connected system — supported by strong institutions, better data and long-term financing — can the world secure the natural resource base needed for sustainable food production.
